Study finds deep caste, Muslim segregation across India
Research shows Muslims and Scheduled Castes clustered in segregated neighborhoods with poorer public services and weaker education outcomes across India
NEW DELHI, India (MNTV) — Urban and rural neighborhoods across India remain deeply segregated along caste and religious lines, with Muslim and Scheduled Caste communities disproportionately concentrated in areas that receive significantly fewer public services, according to a new working paper.
The study, published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, a Massachusetts-based nonprofit research body, analyzed data from roughly 1.5 million neighborhoods across India. It found that levels of segregation based on caste and religion are comparable to contemporary racial segregation levels in the United States.
In India, “Scheduled Castes” (SC) refers to historically marginalized communities formerly treated as “untouchable” within the Hindu caste hierarchy and officially recognized by the state for affirmative action policies. Alongside India’s more than 200 million Muslims, they constitute two of the country’s largest socially disadvantaged populations.
According to the paper, 26% of India’s Muslims live in neighborhoods that are more than 80% Muslim, while 17% of Scheduled Castes live in neighborhoods that are more than 80% SC. Segregation levels for Scheduled Castes are similar in both urban and rural areas. For Muslims, segregation is even more pronounced in cities.
Beyond residential clustering, the study found sharp disparities in access to state-provided services. Secondary schools, clinics, hospitals, electricity, water supply and sewerage infrastructure were described as “systematically worse” in marginalized neighborhoods compared with other localities within the same cities. The authors said the differences were statistically significant and substantial.
The educational consequences are striking. A child growing up in a neighborhood that is 100% Muslim can expect to obtain two fewer years of schooling than a child in a neighborhood with no Muslim concentration, the study estimates.
Children living in predominantly Scheduled Caste neighborhoods face a slightly smaller but comparable disadvantage. The authors conclude that neighborhood effects account for roughly half of the urban educational gap affecting SC and Muslim children.
The researchers — Sam Asher, Kritarth Jha, Anjali Adukia, Paul Novosad and Brandon Tan — note that while the data analyzed dates from 2011 to 2013, residential patterns tend to persist over decades, shaped by migration trends, social exclusion and policy frameworks.
India’s Constitution prohibits caste discrimination and guarantees equality before the law. Yet the findings suggest that spatial segregation continues to shape access to opportunity, reinforcing longstanding disparities in education and public services across the world’s largest democracy.
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